Desert varnish – a “microsoil” of the arid environments: origin, geographical variability, and paleoecological significance (review)

Мұқаба

Дәйексөз келтіру

Толық мәтін

Ашық рұқсат Ашық рұқсат
Рұқсат жабық Рұқсат берілді
Рұқсат жабық Тек жазылушылар үшін

Аннотация

Desert varnish or rock varnish is a thin reddish-black microlayer that cover rocks and is composed mostly of clay minerals, iron and manganese oxides. In this paper, both terms – desert and rock varnish – are used interchangeably. For more than two centuries, rock varnish has been an object of study and interest. Because it develops mainly in arid and desert areas, the interactions between radiation, wind, humidity and microbial activity are determining factors in its formation. On the other hand, the growth rates (few microns per millennium) suggest that it can function as a tool for recording past environments. The current work presents the state of knowledge of rock varnish focusing mainly on inorganic studies. The formation theories, geographical location, magnetic properties, lithodiversity, climatic variability, dating insights, pedofeatures, and some historical aspects are discussed. In addition, the different analytical techniques that have been used to study varnish chemical and mineralogical composition are grouped.

Толық мәтін

Рұқсат жабық

Авторлар туралы

P. Martínez-Pabello

Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; Consejo Nacional de Humanidades Ciencias y Tecnologías (CONAHCYT)

Хат алмасуға жауапты Автор.
Email: nikita.mergelov@gmail.com
ORCID iD: 0000-0002-8591-0622

Institute of Geology

Мексика, México; México

N. Mergelov

Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Email: nikita.mergelov@gmail.com
Ресей, Moscow

M. Bronnikova

Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Texas Tech University

Email: nikita.mergelov@gmail.com
Ресей, Moscow; Lubbock, TX, 79409-2122 USA

S. Sedov

Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México

Email: nikita.mergelov@gmail.com

Institute of Geology

Мексика, México

М. Lebedeva

Dokuchaev Soil Science Institute

Email: nikita.mergelov@gmail.com
Ресей, Moscow

D. Golovanov

International University Park Road; Lomonosov Moscow State University

Email: nikita.mergelov@gmail.com

Shenzhen MSU-BIT University

ҚХР, Dayun New Town; Moscow

P. Trejo-Martin

Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México

Email: nikita.mergelov@gmail.com

Institute of Geology

Мексика, México

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3. Fig. 1. Rock tan on outcrops of dense rocks: (a) – Samalaiuca Range, Chihuahua State, Mexico, (b) – Sonora State, Mexico, (c) – structure and composition of NW from the archaeological site “La Proveedora” (Sonora State, Mexico), the image of the tan surface was obtained with a scanning electron microscope in the secondary electron mode, kidney-shaped and columnar structures of the tan are visible, elemental composition is based on energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy data, (d) – sharp contact of the tan with the underlying dense crystalline rock (Sonora State, Mexico) and signs of destruction of the tan according to scanning electron microscopy data, fine texture and microlayering of the tan are visible, (e) – micromorphological signs of penetration of the tan into the rock with the formation of iron pseudomorphoses in some minerals (Sonora State, Mexico).

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4. Fig. 2. Conceptual models of rock tan formation: microstructure, formation factors, chemical composition and diversity of tans.

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5. Fig. 3. Rock tan on dense rock outcrops in the Larsemann Hills Oasis (East Antarctica, 69.39° S, 76.37° E): (a) Fe-rich NW on an exposed ancient subaerial surface, (b) comparison of the tanned desquamation slab's upper surface with its lower side indicating Fe-rich weathered dense crystalline rock, (c) vertical profile in the upper 10 cm of an ancient red weathering crust with the tanned upper surface, (d) Raman spectrum of a goethite-like mineral phase in the brilliant dark red NW, (e) Raman spectrum of jarosite/natrojarosite in the NW.

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6. Fig. 4. Diversity of rock tans on stone pavements in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia: (a) – general view of the desert pavement, (b) – dominance of black tan on the surface of the detrital material of the desert pavement, (c) – red-brown films on the underside of the detrital material of the pavement in contact with the soil crust horizon, (d) – thin film on an ignimbrite fragment from the desert pavement with an increase in the film thickness in the cavities on the rock surface and penetration of iron-rich material into the pore space of the rock (PPL), (e) – microstructure of the Fe–Mn film of the desert tan on the surface and the ferruginous inner zone in gypsum-bearing sandstone (XPL), (f) – distribution of elements in two-layer films of the desert tan on the surface of the detrital material in the Gobi Desert: the upper red layer of the film with a predominance of Fe, the lower green layer of the film with a predominance of Mn (scanning electron microscopy).

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7. Fig. 5. Rock tan pavements on alluvial fans in the southwestern United States foothills in the Chihuahuan Desert, Jornada Basin (a), and the Mojave Desert, Panamint Valley (b), NW on ancient (Early and Middle Pleistocene) alluvial fans in the Mojave Desert, the amount of detrital material with black NW, as well as the expression of the crustal soil horizon, increase on ancient surfaces PM, Qf 8–12 ka (c), PM, Qf 53–65 ka (d), Sim volcanic field, 75–85 ka (e), PAN-28, 70–80 ka BP. (f), differences in the color of the SZ on the outer (black) and lower (red-brown) sides of rock fragments on alluvial fans of different ages in the Mojave Desert (USA): PM, Qf 8–12 thousand years ago (g), PM, Qf 53–65 thousand years ago (h), the Sim profile (USA) on a lava flow aged 75–85 thousand years ago (i), PAN-28, 70–80 thousand years ago (j), microprobe analysis of two SZ layers (PAN-28, 70–80 thousand years ago) on a fragment of dense rock in the Mojave Desert (k), content of iron, manganese, barium, and titanium, % by mass; image – scanning electron microscopy in secondary electrons, on a section [118].

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